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Gay Cosmos

A Brief Cross-Cultural Survey

A Brief Cross-cultural Survey
Name, Place, Time (Principal sources) Remarks
Cultures with Male Serial Bisexuality
Azande, C Africa, to circa 1900. (Evans-Pritchard: 1970) Male-male marriages are recognized between soldiers and recruits. Marriages are dissolved when recruits become soldiers and themselves take young male-wives. Men, once they were married to women, were expected to prefer heterosexual relations, but throughout life homosexuality was considered a sensible alternative when heterosexual relations were impossible, inconvenient, or as they often were, taboo. The usual form of relations was intercourse between the thighs. Azande knew some men preferred homosexual relations, and such was said to be the case with certain chiefs and military leaders. Male-male marriage was forbidden by European missionaries, but homosexual activities persisted in other forms without sanction.
Dahomey, Benin W Africa, 1931. (Herskovits. v. I, pp. 239-242, 288-289.) Typical example of male serial bisexuality in that homosexual relations among young males and young men are tolerated in a period of sexual segregation, whereas homosexuality between married adult males is strongly condemned. However among the Dahomey adult homosexual relations between those who were lovers in youth may have been concealed in a tradition of "best friendships."
Fang, W Africa, circa 1905. (HRAF FH9 FANG 2:TESSMANN 23 E-2 (1904-1909) 1913) Young men are generally bisexual and no significance attaches to the roles they assume in their homosexual relations. Fang tolerate, but do not approve of youthful homosexual relations. Homosexual relations between men of marriageable age is supposed to be taboo. However, homosexual intercourse is supposed to be a wealth-producing medicine which benefits the partner in the inserter role, although invoking this medicine is supposed to entail a risk of disease. Adult men found in homosexual relations claim not to be homosexual, but only to be practicing the wealth-producing medicine.
Great Britain,to present. Childhood sex play is not tolerated by the English. However at a young age young males of high-status families are sent to sexually segregated compounds called "public schools." Younger young males act as pages, called "fags," to the older young males. Younger young males are often cast in the insertee role in homosexual relations. Additionally, many male-male romances have been reported, although some of these may not have been consummated. In adulthood men are supposed to be completely heterosexual and to resent any allusion to their youthful homosexual relationships. Yet relationships formed in the public schools retain some importance throughout life and this is known as "the old school tie."
Greek, circa 500 BC (Dover.) Homosexuality in the social approved form consisted of intercourse between the thighs in which the inserter was a mature man who sought the relation with a young man. The youth was supposed to be indifferent to the sexual aspects of the relationship and he was not supposed to derive sexual pleasure from the relationship. The youth was supposed to benefit from the patronage of the older man. Anal intercourse was known and was not forbidden, but citizens were not supposed to prostitute themselves in the insertee role.
Houston, Texas, circa 1960. (Fictionalized account by native informant: Eighner [1985] See also: Reiss.) Childhood sex play is not tolerated. From puberty to about age 16, some young males may engage in a practice they call "queer rolling." The stated purpose of this activity is to attract and then rob older homosexual males, but in fact this never actually occurred to the knowledge of the informant. The young males were fellated by the older males and sometimes accepted money for this activity. The plan of robbery served only as an excuse for violating strict taboos on all forms of male homosexuality. Among the initiates, young males admitted deriving pleasure from the men and often said the "faggots" (adult fellators) performed oral sex better than women. Boys would admit to agreeing to meet men again. Cash payments, if any, were token amounts, although sometimes exaggerated by the young males. Sexual contact between the young males was taboo, although group masturbation was not unheard of. Signs of affection between the men and the young males were strictly taboo.
Ik (pseudonym), Kidepo Valley, Uganda, near Sudan-Kenya border, 1964-1967. (Turnbull, p. 254. Better explained: Tripp, p. 68.) Young men may masturbate each other, even in public, provided they do not exchange signs of affection. Turnbull ascribes the lack of affection to the famine the Ik are enduring, but in fact, this is one of the requirements of the native form.
Japan, from at least 1500s to circa 1865. (Childs.) Intergenerational love common among monks and in the military. In the former case men were supposedly homosexual or celibate through their lives. Adult samurai might be bisexual.
Kaluli, Papua, 1976 (Schieffelin. pp. 124-126.) Like the Keraki. Monogamous relationship between an initiate and his sponsor is noted.
Keraki, Papua, 1936 (Williams, F.E.) Sodomy to imbue initiates with masculine characteristics. Similar to fellatio among the Sambians.
Mohave, SW United States, to present. (Devereux. Williams, W.L. pp. 89-90, 96-98, and passim.) Very general bisexuality thought unremarkable from early childhood to early 20s. Virtually all forms of homosexual relations occur. Men are expected to become heterosexual and to marry women, but adult males may marry or have sexual relations with berdaches who are men in a nonmasculine role, and this is not considered homosexual. Mohave berdaches tend to insisted on assuming the insertee role in homosexual relations.
Moslem cultures of Asia minor, N and E Africa. (Edwardes. Cline.) Intergenrational male sex tends to be the rule and after heterosexual marriage men continue to have homosexual affairs throughout life. In some societies, men brag as openly about their homosexual affairs as about their heterosexual ones. Although homosexuality is forbidden by the Koran and the death penalty is prescribed, rigid segregation of the sexes may encourage homosexual practices among parts of the male population who might not otherwise participate.
Mossi, C Africa, Tauxier pp. 569-70 in the French; HRAF FA28 MOSSI 6:TAUXIER, 106. Soroné are cross-dressing pages, young males [at certain young ages] who are oncubines of important men from village dignitaries to the paramount chief. When they come of age they assume masculine roles and marry women given to them by their patron. The first born children of these unions become soroné or wives of soroné.
Nama aka Hottentots, SW Africa. (HRAF FX13 HOTTENTOT 2:SCHAPERA E-4 1930, pp. 322, 242-243.) Although homosexuality is well accepted throughout life, young males form especially intense relationships sealed by soregus (water sharing), a bond in some respects more sacred than marriage. Mutual masturbation is said to be the most common form of homosexual relations, but anal intercourse is not unknown.
Nashville, Tennesee, 1958 (Reiss.) Adolescent males who define themselves neither as career prostitutes nor as homosexuals offer themselves to be fellated for money by (usually) older males who are identified as homosexual provided this activity can be excused as a money-making enterprise, the youth are never cast in a feminine role (at least not in view of their peers), and affection is not overtly expressed by either party. Norms of the relationship of the youth to the older males are enforced with the threat of violence. The youth eventually pursue adult careers and cease this activity.
Nkundo, C Zaire, circa 1930. (HRAF FO32 MONGO 2:HULSTAERT M-5 1938, p. 86.) A sketchy and homophobic report suggests a fairly typical pattern. However, it is reported that in the past the younger partner took the inserter role in anal intercourse, which is unusual.
Nyakyusa, N shore of Lake Malawi aka Lake Nyasa, SE Africa, circa 1936. (Wilson. HRAF FN17 NGONDE 1:WILSON E-5 1951, 197.) During the homosexual period no role divisions appear among the young males and young men. Younger young males and young men exchange roles freely in anal intercourse and intercourse between the thighs. Mutual masturbation is popular. Oral sex is taboo. Boys establish villages, often laid out to reflect their relationships. Eventually the young men marry and their wives move into the village. Homosexuality involving married males is considered witchcraft and is punishable by a cattle fine. Enough cases come to light to suggest that a number of men persist in homosexual relations beyond the prescribed period.
Sambia (pseudonym), New Guinea highlands, 1974-1976 (also 1938). (Herdt.) 95%+ of young men fellate older males, but only during daily secret rituals. The beginning of the fellating period is 7-10 years of age; fellated period begins at puberty and continues until about age 25. Males in this period must avoid all contact with females. Fellators do not assume the roles of women. There is a strongly marked sexual antagonism, "misogyny." Initiates are segregated in men's house, but homosexual relations do not occur there. Young children may play together freely regardless of sex. 5% or less of married males continue to be fellated, but this is socially disapproved. Married men as fellators of youths are strongly condemned, although this is known to occur occasionally.
WaTutsi (dominant ethnic caste of traditional Ruanda), C Africa, mid-20th century. (Maquet.) Homosexuality described as "general" in the Tutsi and Hutu castes, especially among young men at court. Men of marriageable age were expected to become exclusively heterosexual, but blood brother relationships and cross-caste patronage relationships may have served as cover for adult homosexual relationships.
Zulu, S Africa, to 1897. (Morris. pp. 35-36, 46, 51-52, 54, 66, 107-108, 117, 279-281, 287-288, 587.) In martial traditions similar to the Azande. Contrary to events depicted in a popular motion picture, Shaka was avidly homosexual and some of his political decisions were said to have been made to extend his enjoyment of barracks homosexuality.
Cultures with Males in nonmasculine roles ("berdache")
Tanala and Bara, Madagascar, 1920s? (Linton. HRAF FY8 TANALA 1:LINTON 298, 299.) Men in feminized roles are known as sarombavy. They were women's costumes and dress their hair as women do and practice women's occupations. They were not supposed to have supernatural powers nor to be especially adept as medicine men, but they might be medicine men if they wished. Among the Bara professional male dancers were often homosexual, but one could not be a dancer and a sarombavy simultaneously because dancers had to be in the male role. Among the Tanala sarombavy were said to exhibit female characteristics from birth, but among the Bara sometimes men, especial impotent men, might adopt the role later in life, and sarombavy also included true hermaphrodites.
Zuni, America, to present. (Parsons. Stevenson.) Native name for the feminized role is Lhamana which refers to the peacemaking Kachina spirit Ko`lhamana. In ritual dances Lhamana dance back and forth between men's and women's lines, symbolizing their intermediate role. Zuni joke that Lhamana have a special ability to attract young men. Men in the male role may marry Lhamanas.
Zapotec, Oaxaca Mexico, to present. (Chi¤as.) Berdache role, called ira'muxe, coexists with serial bisexuality. Berdache dress is more masculine than feminine in native costume, but berdaches may adopt feminine European dress. Berdaches do not have special religious roles and participate as men in religious rituals. Men in the male role may marry berdaches, but usually berdaches are not first wives. Berdaches are considered good step-mothers and may be married by widowers.
Hupa, N America, to present. (Williams, W. L. here and there.) A Hupa berdache recalls knowing he was different from an early age and it was known to his grandmother that he would "become a woman." The public thought his male partners were insertive in having sex with him, but this was not always the case. He considered his role on the reservation somewhat androgynous. When he left the reservation he passed for a woman in the dominant culture, but eventually was more comfortable identifying himself as a gay man.
Navajo, United States The native name of the role is nadle, which means changing ones. The term is also applied to biological hermaphrodites.
Plateau Tonga, N Zimbabwe, circa 1900? (Smith and Dale, v. I, p. 373; v. II, p. 74.) The native name for the role is mwaami, which means a prophet. One case is cited of a man in female attire doing woman's work. Unstated whether the mwaami had sex with men, but strongly implied that he did not have sex with women. Pederasty said not to be rare, but abhorred for fear of male pregnancy.
Lango, Iteso, and Karamojan peoples of Uganda, circa 1915. (Driberg. pp. 209-210 and notes 1 & 2, pp. 209-210.) Called Jok manywala (god begat me) and other more or less complimentary terms, some men take the role of women in all regards, including in some cases simulating menstruation. Such men were said to number about 50 of a population of 17,000. Men in the male roles could take men in the female role as wives. Otherwise, sexual relationships between men in the male role were attributed to witchcraft and were punishable by death. Men "of hermaphroditic instinct" comparable to jok manywala were said to be very numerous among the neighboring Iteso and Karamojan.
Gisu aka (ba)Masaba, Uganda, W slope of Mt. Elgon, 1953-1955. (La Fontaine. pp. 34, 60-61.) BaYazi is the native term for men in the female role. Although ridiculed, such men were not regarded as revolting. BaYazi refuse to concede in any way that they are not women. At the time of the work BuYazi (the condition) was associated with homosexuality, but this was said not to have been the case in the past. Female roles might be adopted at any age, but usually before circumcision. Otherwise male homosexuality might be punished by beating the participants to death on the spot as it was taken as an indication of witchcraft.
Otoro, Nuba Mountains. (Nadel: 1953) Homosexual men were allowed to adopt the roles of women. This was not associated with their becoming miyang (medical experts).
Heiban (for comparison to the Gisu), Nuba Mountains. (Nadel: 1953) Homosexuals not afforded the opportunity to adopt female roles; regarded simply as abnormal. Homosexuality not associated with kumang (medical experts).
Pima, SW United States. (Hill.) The native name wi-kovat means like a girl. The occurrence of men in the female role is blamed on the witchcraft of the neighboring Papapagos who have a berdache tradition.
Korong and Mesakin, Nuba Mountains. (Nadel: 1952) The word for male homosexual is identical to that for coward or weakling. In both groups male homosexuals are said invariably to become transvestites, but those regarded as cowards or weaklings are often also forced into to this role. A case of witchcraft by one such person is noted, but no special propensity for witchcraft is associated with the transvestite group.
KiMbundu, Angola. (Hambly. p. 81.) A case of a man who dresses as a woman and pounds corn with women. He was beaten by his relatives but did not reform. The medicine man sometimes dresses as a woman. Homosexuality is known to occur but is regard as very bad.
Nyakyusa, SE Africa, 1934-1938. (Wilson. HRAF FN17 NGONDE 1:WILSON E-5 1951, 197.) An idiosyncratic report of a hermit in the hills who dressed as a woman but who was not know to have sex with persons of either sex. Nyakyusa traditions are of the serial bisexual type.
Omaha, C United States, to present. (de Tonti. Williams, W.L. here and there. Dorsey.) The berdache role is called mexoga (instructed by the moon). On his vision quest a young male is offered a man's weapons on the one hand and a woman's pack strap on the other hand by the sacred Moon Being. If the young male grasps the strap, perhaps inadvertently as the Moon Being switches hands quickly, the young male is certain to become a mexoga. A mexoga acts a go-between for men and women, as for example in a marital dispute. The mexoga is considered neither a man nor a woman. But the mexoga can join a warrior society and thus participate in dances as a male. Mexoga dress is masculine with feminine ornaments, but would probably seem entirely masculine to an outside observer. Mexoga marry men in the male role. Modern Omaha recognize mexoga as the same as gay.
Female-Female Relationships
Azande, C Africa. (Evans-Pritchard (1970) pp. 1428-34.) Lesbianism is widely practiced and is the subject of much folklore. Lesbianism is thought to be a form of witchcraft fatal to any male who witnesses it, and therefore theoretically punishable by death (as treason) if practiced by the King's wives. In practice sanctions are less severe or ignored.
Bantu speakers of Africa. (O'Brien.) Female-female marriage is very widespread.
Dahomey, to recent times, Benin. Passing mention of female homosexuality within a more thorough description of male homosexual traditions of the serial bisexual kind. Dahomey was regarded as a land of amazons by Europeans, but evidently this had little to do with lesbianism and everything to do with Dahomey being ruled by a queen at the time of the first European contact. Something of European attitudes is revealed in that Englishmen, having been ruled by the Tudor queens, would assume that a black nation ruled by a queen was necessarily amazon.
France, early 20th century. (de Beauvior.) Description of a lesbian student community at Sävres. Although the author's answers do not reveal a particularly advanced view of lesbianism, she has a knack for asking the right questions.
Gisu (Masaba), W slope of Mt. Elgon, 1953-1955. (La Fontaine. pp. 34, 60-61.) A woman reported living in the male role.
Ibo, SE Nigeria, 1930-1950. (Uchendu. pp. 7 & 50, and note 4, p. 7.) Female-female marriage is recognized. Informant's mother had several wives, but he denies a sexual component of these marriages.
KiMbundu, Angola. (Hambly. p. 81.) Women make artificial penes to use with other women (according to a male informant).
Nandi, Kenya. (Huntingford. pp. 16, 19.) A female witch who has a female husband.
Mombasa (Strobel. p. 133 and note 33.) Women's dance associations provide access to lesbian networks and cover for lesbian assignation (or so some male husbands suspect).
Nama, Kalihari desert, S Africa, 1930. (HRAF FX13 HOTTENTOT 2:SCHAPERA E-4,5 1930.) Lesbianism common, especially between young married women. Lesbian relationships may be sealed by "water-sisterhood" ritual called soregus. This bond may be contracted between any two individuals and does not necessarily imply a romantic or sexual relation, although it often includes such elements. The soregus partner may not be refused anything, including sexual favors, and this obligation supersedes prohibitions against adultery. The usual lesbian sexual practice is mutual masturbation. Male-male practices are remarkably symmetrical.
Nkundó, Africa, 1938. (HRAF FO32 MONGO 2:HUSTAERT 87 M-5 1938.) Nkundó play "husband and wife" and the game is played even by adult married women. The term for the act involved is ya¡kya bons ngo based on the verb ya¡kya, to press against. Nothing wrong is seen in the practice.
Nuer (Zulu), South Africa. (Gluckman. p. 184. Evans-Pritchard. (1950) p. 390.) Zulu women can take wives and the children of this union (via a male perhaps from a different community) belong to the line of the female husband.
Nupe, Nigeria. (Nadel: 1942, p.152). Homosexuality said to occur among women but not men. For this reason, the natives say, women are more complete.
Plateau Tonga, N. Zimbabwe, circa 1960 ? (Smith and Dale. v. I, p. 373; v. II, p. 74.) Women make dildos of leather and wood, but whether for use with other women or for solitary use is not specified.

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